“Thinking Child” Program: Effects on Parenting Styles and Family Problem-Solving Skills

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of Psychology and Education of Exceptional Children, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, University of Tehran

2 Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, New York University School of Medicine

3 University of Allameh Tabatabaei, Tehran, Iran

Abstract

Abstract

Introduction: This study, which was framed within the context of a developing country, aimed to evaluate the impact of the Thinking Child problem-solving program on parenting styles and family problem solving skills.
Methods: A hundred and four mothers in Tehran voluntarily participated in the Thinking Child sessions, conducted weekly by experienced trainers for 9 sessions. A single group pre- and post-test pilot design was executed. Outcome measures included the Parenting Style Questionnaire and Family Problem Solving Scale.
 Results: The findings bolstered the effectiveness of the program on problem-solving processes and parents’ relationships with their children specifically, showed a significant reduction in authoritative and authoritarian parenting styles and also revealed an increase in permissive parenting style.
Conclusion: The Thinking Child intervention displays promising results for trainings involving problem-solving skills in parents. However, it should be used in conjunction with a complementary intervention while parent training is executed.

Keywords


References
1. Heller S, Larrieu JA, D’Imperio R, Borisde NW. Research on
resilience to child maltreatment: empirical considerations. Child
Abuse Negl. 1999 Apr;23(4):321-38.
2. Stephenson R, Sheikhattari P, Assasi N, Eftekhar H, Zamani Q, Maleki
B, Kiabayan H. Child maltreatment among school children in the
Kurdistan Province, Iran. Child Abuse Negl. 2006 Mar 1;30(3):231-
45.
3. Olson DH, Russell CS, Sprenkle DH. Circumplex model of marital
and family systems: Vl. Theoretical update. Family process. 1983
Mar;22(1):69-83..
4. Abar B, Carter KL, Winsler A. The effects of maternal parenting style
and religious commitment on self-regulation, academic
achievement, and risk behavior among African-American parochial
college students. Journal of adolescence. 2009 Apr 1;32(2):259-73.
5. Conger KJ, Williams ST, Little WM, Masyn KE, Shebloski B.
Development of mastery during adolescence: The role of family
problem-solving. Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 2009
Mar;50(1):99-114.
6. Sanders MR, Ralph A, Thompson R, Sofronoff K, Gardiner P, Bidwell
K, Dwyer S. Every Family: A public health approach to promoting
children’s wellbeing. Brisbane, Australia: University of
Queensland. 2005.
7. Baumrind D, Black AE. Socialization practices associated with
dimensions of competence in preschool boys and girls. Child
development. 1967 Jun 1:291-327.
8. Besharat MA, Azizi K, Poursharifi H. The relationship between
parenting styles and children's academic achievement in a sample of
Iranian families. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2011 Jan
1;15:1280-3.
9. Turner EA, Chandler M, Heffer RW. The influence of parenting styles,
achievement motivation, and self-efficacy on academic performance
in college students. J Coll Stud Dev. 2009;50(3):337-46.
10. Baumrind D. The influence of parenting style on adolescent
competence and substance use. J Early Adolesc. 1991 Feb;11(1):56-
95.
11. Jahan A, Suri S. Parenting Style in Relation to Mental Health among
Female Adolescents. Abnormal and Behavioural Psychology.
2016;2(3):1000125.
12. Zarra-Nezhad M, Aunola K, Kiuru N, Mullola S, Moazami-Goodarzi
A. Parenting styles and children’s emotional development during the
first grade: The moderating role of child temperament. J Psychol
Psychother. 2015;5(5): 206. doi: 10.4172/2161-0487.1000206
13. Harris KM. The health status and risk behaviors of adolescents in
immigrant families. In D. J. Hernandez (Ed.), Children of
immigrants: Health, adjustment, and public assistance. Washington,
DC: National Academy Press; 2000. p. 286-347.
14. Jacobson KC, Crockett LJ. Parental monitoring and adolescent
adjustment: An ecological perspective. J Res Adolesc. 2000 Jan
1;10(1):65-97.
15. Vanderfaeillie J, Van Holen F, Vanschoonlandt F, Robberechts M,
Stroobants T. Children placed in long-term family foster care: A
longitudinal study into the development of problem behavior and
associated factors. Child Youth Serv Rev. 2013 Apr 1;35(4):587-93.
16. Whittle S, Simmons JG, Dennison M, Vijayakumar N, Schwartz O,
Yap MB, Sheeber L, Allen NB. Positive parenting predicts the
development of adolescent brain structure: a longitudinal study. Dev
Cogn Neurosci. 2014 Apr 1;8:7-17.
17. Argys LM, Rees DI, Averett SL, Witoonchart B. Birth order and risky
adolescent behavior. Econ Inq. 2006 Apr;44(2):215-33.
18. Brown AM, Whiteside SP. Relations among perceived parental
rearing behaviors, attachment style, and worry in anxious children.
J Anxiety Disord. 2008 Jan 1;22(2):263-72.
19. Van Gastel W, Legerstee JS, Ferdinand RF. The role of perceived
Effects of "Thinking Child” Program
Int J Behav Sci Vol.12, No.2, Summer 2018 64
parenting in familial aggregation of anxiety disorders in children. J
Anxiety Disord. 2009 Jan 1;23(1):46-53.
20. Osborne LA, McHugh L, Saunders J, Reed P. The effect of parenting
behaviors on subsequent child behavior problems in autistic
spectrum conditions. Res Autism Spectr Disord. 2008 Apr
1;2(2):249-63.
21. Moffitt TE. Life-course-persistent and adolescence-limited antisocial
behavior: a 10-year research review and a research agenda. 2003.
22. Shokoohi-Yekta M, Parand A. The Effectiveness of Instruction Based
on Cognitive Approach on Family Relationship. Family Research.
2008;4(1):5-16.
23. Shure MB. Preventing Violence the Problem-Solving Way. Juvenile
Justice Bulletin. 1999.
24. Kogos JL, Blumberg S, Youngstrom EA. Effectiveness of
interpersonal cognitive problem solving and changes in emotions.
annual meeting of the American Psychological Association; San
Francisco1998
25. Richard BA, Dodge KA. Social maladjustment and problem solving
in school-aged children. J Consult Clin Psychol. 1982
Apr;50(2):226.
26. Clarke AT. Coping with interpersonal stress and psychosocial health
among children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. J Youth Adolesc.
2006 Feb 1;35(1):10-23.
27. Connor-Smith JK, Compas BE, Wadsworth ME, Thomsen AH,
Saltzman H. Responses to stress in adolescence: measurement of
coping and involuntary stress responses. J Consult Clin Psychol.
2000 Dec;68(6):976.
28. Takahashi F, Koseki S, Shimada H. Developmental trends in
children's aggression and social problem-solving. Journal of Applied
Developmental Psychology. 2009 May 1;30(3):265-72.
29. Speckens AE, Hawton K. Social problem solving in adolescents with
suicidal behavior: A systematic review. Suicide Life Threat Behav.
2005 Aug 1;35(4):365-87.
30. McMurran M, Egan V, Richardson C, Ahmadi S. Social problem
solving in mentally disordered offenders: a brief report. Crim Behav
Ment Health. 1999 Nov;9(4):315-22.
31. Shure MB. How to think, not what to think: A cognitive approach to
prevention. In L. A. Bond & B. M. Wagner (Eds.), Families in
transition: Primary prevention programs that work. (pp. 170–199).
Newbury Park, California: CA: Sage; 1988.
32. Carson J. A problem with problem solving: Teaching thinking
without teaching knowledge. The mathematics educator.
2007;17(2):7-14.
33. Pellegrini DS. Social cognition and competence in middle childhood.
Child Dev. 1985 Feb 1:253-64.
34. Malouff JM, Thorsteinsson EB, Schutte NS. The efficacy of problem
solving therapy in reducing mental and physical health problems: a
meta-analysis. Clin Psychol Rev. 2007 Jan 1;27(1):46-57.
35. Shokoohi–Yekta M, Parand A, Ahmadi A. Effects of teaching
problem solving strategies to parents of pre-teens: a study of family
relationship. Procedia-Social Behavioral Sciences. 2011;15:957-60.
36. Faircloth WB, Schermerhorn AC, Mitchell PM, Cummings JS,
Cummings EM. Testing the long-term efficacy of a prevention
program for improving marital conflict in community families. J
Appl Dev Psychol. 2011;32(4):189-97.
37. Epstein T, Saltzman-Benaiah J. Parenting children with disruptive
behaviours: Evaluation of a collaborative problem solving pilot
program. Journal of Clinical Psychology Practice. 2010;1(1):27-40.
38. Edwards AM. Parent child interactions in physically abusive
families: uga; 2005.
39. Reid MJ, Webster-Stratton C, Hammond M. Enhancing a classroom
social competence and problem-solving curriculum by offering
parent training to families of moderate-to high-risk elementary
school children. J Clin Child Adolesc Psychol. 2007;36(4):605-20.
40. Shure MB, Digeronimo TF. Raising a thinking child workbook:
Teaching young children how to resolve everyday conflicts and get
along with others. Pennsylvania State University: Research Press;
2001.
41. Ahmadi K, Fathi Ashtiani A, Etemadi A. Effect of family problem
solving on decreasing couple's maladjustment. Iranian Journal of
Psychology. 2005;8(4):389-403.
42. Buri J. Parental authority questionnaire. J Pers Assess.
1991;1(57):110-9.
43. Esfandiari G. Comparison of mothers’ parenting styles of children
with behavioral problems and mothers with normal children
[Master's thesis]. Tehran: Islamic Azad University; 1995.
44. Meyers LS, Gamst G, Guarino AJ. Applied multivariate research:
Design and interpretation. Sage publications; 2016 Nov 22.
45. Minuchin S. Families and Family Therapy. Cambridge, USA:
Harvard University Press; 2009.
46. Letarte MJ, Normandeau S, Allard J. Effectiveness of a parent
training program “Incredible Years” in a child protection service.
Child Abuse Negl. 2010;34(4):253-61.
47. Rinaldi C, Howe N. Mothers’ and fathers’ parenting styles and
associations with toddlers’ externalizing, internalizing, and adaptive
behaviors. Early Child Res Q. 2012;27(2):266-73.
48. Baumrind D, Larzelere RE, Owens EB. Effects of Preschool Parents'
Power Assertive Patterns and Practices on Adolescent Development.
Parenting: Science and Practice. 2010;10(3):157-201.
49. Crockett LJ, Hayes R. Parenting Practices and Styles. In
Encyclopedia of Adolescence Vol 2 Elsevier Inc. 2011:241-8.
50. Gershoff E. Corporal punishment by parents and associated child
behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review.
Psychol Bull. 2002;128(4):539-79.
51. Garcia F, Garcia E. Is always authoritative the optimum parenting
style? Evidence from Spanish families. Adolescence.
2009;44(173):101-31.
52. Schermerhorn AC, D'Onofrio BM, Slutske WS, Emery RE,
Turkheimer E, Harden KP, et al. Offspring ADHD as a Risk Factor
for Parental Marital Problems: Controls for Genetic and
Environmental Confounds. Twin Res Hum Genet. 2012;15(6):700-
13.
53. Shokoohi-Yekta M, Parand A, Zamani N, Lotfi S, Ayazi M. Teaching
problem-solving for parents: effects on children’s misbehavior.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2011;30:163-6.
54. Forehand R, .Jones DJ, Parenta J. Behavioral parenting interventions
for child disruptive behaviors and anxiety: What's different and
what's the same. Clin Psychol Rev. 2013;33(1):133-45.